Slaughter House Audit Essay Example

Slaughter House Audit Essay  © Kamla-Raj 2009 J Soc Sci, 19(2): 121-127 (2009) The Impact of Abattoir Activities and Management in Residential Neighbourhoods: A Case Study of Ogbomoso, Nigeria Y. O. Bello and D. T. A. Oyedemi Department of Architecture, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria KEYWORDS Abattoir. Abattoir Activities. Pollution. Ogbomoso. Local Built Environment ABSTRACT Abattoir is one of the facilities available in most towns and cities, as the killing of animals to supply meat for human consumption in them is a common practice in Nigeria. The danger posed on the local built environment and health of residents by those abattoirs located in residential neighborhoods as a result of pollution from their management is of great concern. The study therefore investigates the direct and indirect effects of management of abattoirs on the quality of local built environment and the health of residents in their vicinity using Ogbomoso as a case study. Water samples from selected wells in the study area were collected for analysis to investigate the effect on the water quality. Also, residents of buildings located approximately 100meters radius to the abattoir were randomly selected for interview using relevant indicators to investigate effects on their health. The result was analyzed using frequency count, chi-square and correlation test. The study indicated pollution of wells and air quality of the local built environment in the vicinity of the abattoir as well as reduced quality of health of residents in the area, as there were reported cases of elevation of excessive coughing, typhoid fever, diarrhea, and malaria and muscle pains among these residents. We will write a custom essay sample on Slaughter House Audit specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Slaughter House Audit specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Slaughter House Audit specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The study concluded with appropriate recommendations to address the problem and as well suggested the exclusion of abattoir facility from residential neighbourhood. INTRODUCTION The provision of facilities and services in cities and neighbourhoods is crucial to their sustainability and efficiency. The facilities and services in residential neighbourhood include among others: nursery and primary school, neighbourhood center, shopping center or market, retail shops, health centre, place of worship, police station, bank, petrol tation, children playground, public utilities sites for electricity, transformer, water service reservoir, some service industries, and abattoir. The location and management of these facilities and services in the neighbourhood are very important. One of the objectives of a neighborhood is to provide an environment in which the residents may have an easy walk to shopping centre where they may obtain their daily household goods, and other services and facilities. However, the disadvantage of locating some of these facilities in the neighbourhood outweighs the advantage. Abattoir is one of such facilities. The accessibility Correspondence author: D. T. A. Oyedemi Department of Architecture, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria Telephone: 2348034679049 E-mail: [emailprotected] com or [emailprotected] co. uk and nearness of abattoir and meat shops to consumers may present some merits, but the impact of its management on the local built environment and health of residents in abattoir vicinity poses great risk. More concern is being expressed over danger to health of residents who are neighbours to abattoirs, especially in developing countries where level of awareness is low. People are expressing dissatisfaction with the location and ways abattoirs in their neighbourhood are being managed. Today, residents who are neighbours to abattoirs doubt the compatibility of abattoir with residential land use. LITERATURE REVIEW Abattoir, also known as slaughter house is a place where animals are butchered for food. (Collins English Dictionary). Abattoir Acts (1988) defined abattoir as any premises used for or in connection with the slaughter of animals whose meat is intended for human consumption and include a slaughterhouse but does not include a place situated on a farm. Animals include cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and other equine animals. The killing of animals for community consumption is inevitable in most nations of the world and dated back to antiquity. Public abattoir had been traced to Roman civilization and in France by 15th and 16th centuries, public slaughter houses were 22 among the public facilities. In Italy, a law of 1890 required that public abattoir be provided in all communities of more than six thousand inhabitants. Similar things were reported in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands and Rumania (Jode Loverdo et al. 1906). Robert Forster (2005) reported that in United Kingdom, abattoirs or slaughterhouses perform a vital role in purchasing cattle, and sheep from farms and transforming them into carcass me at. He revealed that in 2001, there were about 360 licensed red-meat abattoirs in UK compared with almost 900 in 1990. In Nigeria, nearly every town and neighbourhood is provided with slaughter house or slaughter slab. Edwards et al. (1979) published on slaughter facilities for tropical conditions and observed that abattoir may be situated in urban, rural and nominated industrial site and that each has advantages and disadvantages. The advantages of the rural site according to him out-weighed those of the other sites and recommended that a rural location be chosen where possible. They recommended that abattoir should be built on firm gently sloping land away from other buildings, residential areas and factories. He further suggested that the site for abattoir should be chosen well away from town boundaries including projected town boundaries. Abattoir management provides a service in slaughtering of animals. Edwards et al. (1979) reported that the slaughter of animals in abattoirs of developing countries was carried out in unsuitable buildings by untrained slaughter men and butchers that were unaware of sanitary principles. Wastes generated by abattoirs are potential environmental quality problems. Raymond (1977) submitted that, problem may be more dependent upon the abattoir activities or operation practices and waste management techniques than the size of the operation, the number of cattle or amount of waste involved. In Nigeria, Sridhar (1998) reported that, a cow brought for slaughtering produces 328. 4Kg of waste in form of dung, bone, blood, horn and hoof. Robert (2005) submitted that the disposal of waste product is a problem that has always dominated the slaughter sector and on average, 45 per cent of each live beef animal, 53 per cent of each sheep, and 34 per cent of each pig consist of non-meat substances. The characteristics of slaughter house waste and effluent vary from day to day depending on the number, types of stock being processed and the method (Tove 1985). Waste generated by abattoirs include solid waste, Y. O. BELLO AND D. T. A. OYEDEMI made up of paunch content, bones, horns, and faecal components, slurry of suspended solids, fat, blood and soluble materials (Sangodoyin et al. 1992). Raymond (1977) however reported that waste can affect water, land or air qualities if proper practices of management are not followed. Animal waste can be valuable for crops but can cause water quality impairment. It also contains organic solids, trace heavy metals, salts, bacteria, viruses, other micro organisms and sediment. The waste from animals can also be washed into streams if not protected and reduces oxygen in water, thereby endangering aquatic life. Raymond (1977) also reported that improper animal waste disposal can lead to animal diseases being transmitted to human through contact with animal faeces. Cooper et al. 1979) reported that abattoir effluent reaching streams contributed significant level of nitrogen, phosphorous and biochemical oxygen demand and other nutrients resulting in stream pollution. George (1987) attributed excessive nitrate problem in New Zealand ground waters to concentrated livestocks and manure usage. Sangodoyin et al. (1992) also reported that the ground water quality in vicinity of the abattoir were adversely affected by seepage of abattoir effluent as well as water quality of re ceiving stream that was located away from the abattoir. The health of the city is linked to the health of the dwellers. The health of the dweller is affected by the environment. In every neighourhood, there is a considerable range of biological and chemical pollutants that cause or contribute to diseases. Some may pose health risk for specific particular group while others for the entire neighourhood. Carolyn et al. (1985) reported that pathogens from cattle waste could be transmitted to humans via water-based recreations. The wells in the meat processing areas sometimes result in been polluted. Wells in vicinity of abattoirs which serves as source of water to the abattoir users was traced by Sangodoyin et al. 1992) to be polluted by effluent from the abattoir and constitute health risk for the butchers and users of the wells. Noise pollution was reported by Oyedemi (2004) to be associated with abattoir activities and location. Wing and Wolf (2000) noted decrease health and quality of life of residents around intensive livestocks operations and hinted that respiratory and mucous membrane effects were common with neighbours of intensive swine operation. Medical experts were reported by Oyedemi (2004) to have associated some THE IMPACT OF ABATTOIR ACTIVITIES AND MANAGEMENT IN RESIDENTIAL NEIGHBOURHOODS 23 diseases with abattoir activities which include pneumonia, diarrhea, typhoid fever, asthma, wool sorter diseases, respiratory and chest diseases. E . coli infection source was reported to be undercooked beef which has been contaminated, often in abattoirs, with faeces containing the bacterium. (Encarta 2005). These diseases can spread from the abattoir to the neighourhood via vectors or animals. However, growing population with increase in demand for meat has resulted in increased abattoir related pollution and has attracted intervention in many developed countries. There is high level of awareness on pollution from animal waste (including abattoir) whether in the farm or in the city and over the years several measures have been put in place to protect the public health and the environment (Merington et al. 1984). According to Robert (2005), in 1992, the European Commission introduced a Pan-European fresh-meat directive designed to standardize structural and hygiene regulations for abattoirs in all EU countries. The requirement was said to have a profound impact on slaughter industry structures in the United Kingdom. Similar intervention was recorded in United States of America with the introduction of Abattoir Act (1988) . In the contrary, little intervention or response had been made in the developing nations. OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY AREA The study was carried out in Ogbomoso , Oyo State, Nigeria. Ogbomoso is the second largest city in Oyo state after the state capital, Ibadan . Ogbomoso is the administrative headquaters of both Ogbomoso North and South Local Governments. It is situated 57 kilometers SouthWest of Ilorin, the capital of Kwara state, 104 kilometers North of Ibadan and 58 kilometers North –West of Osogbo, the capital of Osun state. The popular Atanda abattoir was chosen for the study with the large expanse of built up area comprising of low, medium and high housing densities. Majority of residents are civil servants and traders. The abattoir harbors meat shops where slaughtered meat is sold. There are two wells within the slaughter area. The abattoir is surrounded at the south with residential developments and in the north by office complex and west and east by school and shops respectively. The abattoir is about 200meters from the main road (Ibadan-Ilorin road). METHODOLOGY Data for this study was collected from both primary and secondary sources. The primary source was through two sets of structured questionnaire. One set was designed for the abattoir users to obtain information on ownership, year of establishment, available facilities in the abattoir, average number of cows killed per day, abattoir staff strength, operation and activities, waste disposal methods employed, and other abattoir management issues. The other set was designed for the residents to address the resident’s characteristics: age, sex, household size, marital status, effect of the abattoir on their environmental conditions, water quality especially for residents with well as source of water supply. Few questions were asked on their health history and life style, for example, do you smoke? A positive answer may interfere with findings on effect of abattoir on residents’ health. The second section of the questionnaire listed several symptoms that may be associated with abattoir or possibly related to air borne emission from abattoir activities or pollutants. Symptoms that are not related were also included as a check. Respondents were requested to report frequency of symptoms, whether very often, often, occasionally or never. In the residential area around the abattoir, residents in buildings approximately 100meters from the abattoir were randomly selected for questionnaire administration. In all, 95 residents were randomly selected. The secondary source was through relevant past studies, magazines and journals. The information collected was analyzed based on frequency, chi-square and correlation statistics. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The investigation carried out revealed that the abattoir had been in operation for more than thirty years. The slaughter slab provided in the abattoir is covered to provide shield from elements of weather. It is not fenced. On scale of operation, average numbers of fifteen cows are slaughtered daily in the abattoir. The cows are usually brought from the cattle ranch or cattle market which is located about one kilometer away from the abattoir. The movement of the cows through the neighborhood street from the cattle ranch to the abattoir is among the nuisance reported by residents that the abattoir location in their neighborhood constituted. There is usually traffic 124 hold-up along the abattoir street every morning when cows are being taken to abattoir for slaughter from the cattle ranchmarket. The method of killing of cattle in the abattoir is the traditional method of slaughtering at the slaughter slab after inspection by the health officers. Deep wells are the source of water supply for the abattoir. Carcasses are cut up and sold to prospective buyers in the abutting meat shops. Waste generated in the abattoir include: bones, blood and dung. There is no special waste disposal system or treatment. Dung is piled up and waste water containing blood and dung are discharged into a nearby stream without treatment. This resulted into pollution of surface and underground water especially of the abattoir and residents in the abattoir vicinity. Bones and hooves collected in the abattoir were burnt at the abattoir site causing smoke and air pollution. From the result of the survey on characteristics of the respondents, (Table 1) sixty percent of the respondents were female. Fifty five percent of the respondents are married and seventy two percent are tenants while forty five percent of the respondents have lived more than five years in the neighborhood. Fifty three percent of the respondents are employed outside of the home but eighty three percent spent average of ten hours daily at home. On the household size of the respondents, forty seven percent falls within 3-4 household size. Ninety eighty percent of the respondents were fully aware of the abattoir’s closeness to their residents. However, ninety nine percent reported that they met the abattoir in the area when they moved in to their present houses. Eighty two percent of the respondents do not smoke. The source of drinking water for the majority is deep well; sixty eight percent of the respondents depend on well water. Ninety four percent of the respondents revealed that the abattoir in their area constitutes a nuisance to them and fifty eighty percent reported contamination of their wells with abattoir effluent. Bad odour from the abattoir was reported to constitute air quality impairment by thirteen percent of the respondents. Ninety eight percent of the respondents reported that the bad odour limits children outdoor recreation, affects breathing, causes respiratory ailment and prevents opening of windows especially in abattoir direction. Ninety four percent also reported the incidence of flies and insects in high number due to the abattoir location. The microbial test carried out on samples of water collected from the abattoir Y. O. BELLO AND D. T. A. OYEDEMI and resident’s wells indicated pollution of water quality. Result revealed the contamination of water by waste from the abattoir with a total of sixty six organisms belonging to seven different genera of public health importance isolated from the samples. The presence of these organisms in the wells that serve as a source of domestic water supply to the neighbourhood is a significant health risk. Residents whose source of water is well also confirmed notice of contamination of their wells with abattoir effluent. The effect of abattoir pollutants on air quality was easily perceived and reported by respondents. Over seven three percent reported disturbance of bad odour from the abattoir. They reported that it limited children outdoor recreation. Another effect reported was the contamination of food items of residents in abattoir vicinity by flies and insects; flies and mosquitoes were in abnormal rate. These insects and flies were reported to be attracted to the area by abattoir waste. Other limitations imposed on residents in abattoir vicinity by abattoir nuisance are noise pollution from the abattoir, inability to open windows in the direction of the abattoir and prevention of normal breathing. Forty three percent reported interference of odour with their breathing. Fifty eight percent were willing to relocate from the area because of the negative effects of the abattoir On effect of abattoir activities on health of respondents, studies cited previously have reported elevation of some symptoms among residents of intensive livestock operations (Wing and Wolf 2000). In this study, headache, excessive coughing, shortness of breath, heart burn, diarrhea dysentery, general body weakness, fever and typhoid fever were reported to be elevated generally among residents in abattoir vicinity (SPSS output). Results indicated the symptoms experienced at least often by residents in abattoir vicinity to include excessive coughing, typhoid fever, shortness of breath, diarrhea, fever and muscle pain. The test of significance of these prevalent symptoms (statistical method-SPSS output) indicated possible association with battoir activities. However, biases are issues in any survey. It is possible for respondents to have reported occurrence of more symptoms because of their personal feelings about the negative impact of the abattoir operation in their area. However, this was observed to be limited or not to have been done as some symptoms not related to abattoir activities included in the questions to check this excess indicated lowest occurrence. THE IMPACT OF ABATTOIR ACTIVITIES AND MANAGEMENT IN RESIDENTIAL NEIGHBOURHOODS 125 Cholera, asthma and pneumonia were expected to be among physical health symptoms to be elevated among respondents in abattoir vicinity, as they are associated with abattoir activities. However the case was otherwise in the study. Results however showed that pollutants from abattoir activities have direct and indirect effects on human and the local built environment, especially those in close proximity to abattoir. However, weather condition at the time surveys were being carried out could have influenced findings. Some respondents reported that the negative effects are more severe during dry season than presently. Study was not able to evaluate levels of impact on residents within the same area but at different distance to abattoir. There is possibility of different level of effect because of differences in distance, building orientation or elevations, direction, physical barrier and amount of time spent at home. Study was also not able to evaluate health impact on specific population group. Such groups include children, aged, and asthmatic patients. There may be possibility of different group being affected differently by abattoir activities. These are possible areas of future inquiry. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The study revealed that abattoir activities and management have direct and indirect effects on the built-up environment and health of people especially residents in abattoir vicinity. The study indicated negative impact of abattoir activities on air and water qualities of residents within abattoir vicinity especially abattoir where special or effective waste disposal system is not practiced. The health quality of residents living in abattoir vicinity was revealed to be reduced due to effect of pollutants from abattoir activities located in their neighbourhood. It was noted that children outdoor recreation in abattoir vicinity was also limited. Therefore, there is need to control abattoir as strictly as industries have been controlled in matter of location and management in Nigeria. Abattoir should be excluded from facilities to be located within residential neighbourhood. It should be included and treated as among industrial land use or agricultural land use. For abattoir planning and construction, regulations controlling the movement and slaughter of live stocks, the availability of service and staff in abattoirs should be made. For large battoir, provision should be made for separate livestock market for sheep, goat and cattle, fresh water pumping station or storage and waste treatment plant. The abattoir management system should include a waste management plan designed for abattoir operation Legislative measures are also necessary. Laws and rules on zoning, land use, and waste regulation to control the location and management of abattoi rs should be made. The government should enforce existing laws related to abattoir and new ones. Design criteria and siting restriction which include setbacks from neighbours and buffer must be specified. Measures to protect against encroachment into buffer by property developers should be provided. Rules requiring odour abatement plans and provision of environmental impact assessment for abattoirs should be enforced. Licensing of abattoir, certification of all operators as well as training of employees involved in abattoir activities should be made. In addition, public awareness and enlightment on possible impact of pollution from abattoir wastes should be embarked upon by relevant agencies and public participation to be included in the development of policies for abattoir management. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors acknowledge Mr Adewale Adelowo ,department of Pure and Applied Biology, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso for assisting on microbial test on water samples and providing the interpretation and implication REFERENCES Abattoir Acts 1988. Retrieved 2003 from http//www. Irishstatutebook. i. e/1988/en/act/pub/0008/index. html Carolyn CB, Buckhouse JC 1985. Coliforms Are Indicators of Water Quality in Wild land Streams. Journal of Soil Water Conservation, 40: 95-97. Cooper RN, Hoodle JR, Russel JM 1979. Characteristics and Treatment of Slaughter House Effluent in New Zealand. Prog Water Technology, 11: 55-68. Edwards E, Hector OA. , Norman GA, Silverside D 1979. Slaughter Facilities for Tropical Conditions: A Guide to the Selection and Costing of Appropriate Systems. London: Tropical Product Institute. Encarta Encyclopedia Standard 2005. Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy. Forster Robert 2005. Meat Parking Industry. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Standard. George RH 1987. Agricult ural Chemicals and Ground 126 Water-Extent and Implications. American Journal of Alt Agric, 2: 3-13. Jode Loverdo, Martel H, Mallet J. 1906. Les Abattoirs Publics, H. Dunod et E. Pinat, Editeurs, Paris. Merrington G, Winder L, Parkinson R, Redman M 1984. Agricultural Pollution: Environmental Problems and Practical Solutions. London. Taylor Francis (Spon Press). Oyedemi DTA 2000. The Impact of Abattoir Location and Management on Surrounding residents in Ibadan, Nigeria. M. Tech. Thesis (unpublished), LAUTECH, Ogbomoso. Raymond C L 1977. Pollution Control for Agriculture. New York: Academic Press Inc. Y. O. BELLO AND D. T. A. OYEDEMI Sangodoyin AY, Agbawhe OM 1992. Environmental Study on Surface and Ground Water Pollutants from Abattoir Effluents. Bioresource Technology, 41:193200. Elsevier Science publishers Ltd. Great Britain. Sridhar MKC 1988. Government/Private Sector Partnership. Effective Tool for Solid Waste Evacuation and Management. In: A Tokun, AA Adegbola (Eds. ): Proceedings of the Workshop on Engineering Development and the Environment. Nigeria: Prost Publishing, pp. 41-50. Tove S 1985. Slaughter House Cleaning and Sanitation. Animal Product and Health. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Paper No 53. New York: UN. THE IMPACT OF ABATTOIR ACTIVITIES AND MANAGEMENT IN RESIDENTIAL NEIGHBOURHOODS 127 APPENDIX Table 1: Characteristics of the respondents and their answers to abattoir activities Characteristics Sexmale female Frequency (percentage) 40 60 Characteristics Age10-18 19-40 41-60

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Governments in this part of the world lack funds and skilled human resources that can support technology and infrastructure needed for good water management and crop irrigation. Scarcity of safe water makes people use waste water for irrigation. This makes a lot of people to eat food with disease causing organisms. Women in this part of the world are burdened by lack of clean water for drinking. They are the collectors, managers as well as guardian of water in domestic spheres which include household chores such as washing, child rearing and cooking. They spend a considerable amount of time fetching water (Dreibelbis, Winch, Leontsini, Hulland, Ram, Unicomb, et al., 2013). This causes a decrease in the time available for education. Their health is also at risk of skeletal damage caused by carrying heavy loads of water every day over long distances. Loss of potential school days and education prevents the next generation of women from holding professional employments. Access to safe water for drinking will make women in Sub-Saharan Africa increase time allocated to education which will make them take leadership positions. Scarcity of water makes many children in this region drop out of school to help in household chores which are made more intense by lack of water. Increase in population in Africa and lack of safe water for drinking has caused a lot of strain and conflict on relations between communities and between countries.It has been argued that Nile River is a source of conflict in nine countries. Water fro Nile River is the only source of sustaining life in both Sudan and Egypt. Egyptians use military force to make sure they retain control over Nile River because she has no other source of water. This conflict runs from the colonial era when England textile factories depended on Sudan and Egypt agricultural activities. After the colonial era, Egypt continued to create political instability in Ethiopia. It blocked international financing agencies from giving loans to Ethiopia in order to finance projects on the river. The conflict is now real because Ethiopia has now managed to carry out water projects on her own like building hydro-power dams and irrigation programs. Egypt has been reported to issue threats of war to Tanzania and Ethiopia. In 1970s, Egypt armed Somalia separatist rebels in Ethiopia in the Somali invasion. The nine involved states have had agreements and treaties in a bid to control conflict. However, treaties and agreements have resulted to inequitable rights of using water from Nile River between countries. An example is a treaty between Great Britain and Ethiopia, Emperor Menelik II, king of kings of Ethiopia. He agreed with the government of His Britannic Majesty not to construct or permit construction projects across Blue Nile, the Sobat and Lake Tana in 1902. In 1906, an agreement between Britain and Government of Independent state of Congo would not construct or permit any construction of projects over or near Semliki or Isango rivet that would reduce the amount of water entering Lake Albert. In 1925, conflict between Egypt and Ethiopia escalated because Ethiopia opposed earlier agreements (Dreibelbis et al., 2013). The League of Nations demanded Italy and British government give an explanation on sovereignty of Ethiopia on Lake Tana. The League of Nations did not help resolve the conflict because there was no self enforcing and reliable mechanism to protect the property rights of stakeholders which is necessary for international water development to be applied. Due to failure of United Nations to help solve the Nile basin conflict, nine riparian states formed a partnership called Nile Basin Initiative. Its mandate is to develop Nile River in a cooperative way, sharing social-economic benefits that promote regional security and peace. World Bank agreed to support the work of Nile Basin Initiative as a development partner as well as an administrator of multi donor Nile Basin Trust Fund. Disputes have also erupted in Niger River Basin. Disagreements and disputes in this basin are caused by limited access to safe drinking water. The disputes are between communities in Mali, Nigeria, and Niger. River flows and rainfall have reduced from 1970s leading to tension between two communities that live in the basin. The two communities are pastoralists and farmers. Pastoralists are forced by lack of water to travel farther with their herds. On the other hand, farmers expand their cropland to take care of increasing population. This reduces pathways that are available to herder and their livestock. Tension increased due to poor policy decisions. In Lokoga in Nigeria, government started dredging Niger River in early 2009 to increase commercial shipping (Huang, Jacangelo Schwab, 2011). The government of Nigeria argued that dredging would help reduce flooding but late farmer suffered from floods in 2010. Farmers resulted to building homes and cultivating land away from the river leading to reduction in land available for grazing. This has facilitated conflict between the two communities greatly. New dams rose built by the government of Nigeria raised ecological issues that provoked hard negotiations over sharing of resources equitably in Niger Basin (Loftus, 2009). It was reported that Mali and Niger did not support construction of dams across the river. Navigation of the river was also constrained by the availability of large boats when water is deep enough. Climate change in Niger Basin has caused a high degree of variability in river flows, rainfall and temperature. The international community is doing little in helping the conflicting countries in the Niger Basin resolve the conflict. Scarcity of safe drinking water has also led to a lot of competition in Volta River basin. Volter River basin is said to be one of the poorest part in Africa continent and is shared by six West African states. People in the basin depend on agriculture as their means of livelihood. The population in West Africa is growing at the rate of 3% thus putting pressure on water resources and land. Burkina Faso is increasing agricultural development upstream using surface resources such as water (Okun, 1991). Water development in Burkina Faso has had a negative impact on Akosombo Dam which Ghana depends on for its energy supply. In 1998, low water level caused energy crisis in Ghana which ended up blaming Burkina Faso water project. Low water levels could have been caused by other factors such as unreliable rainfall variability. Peaceful conflict resolutions could be hindered in the future by insufficient communication between Ghana and Burkina Faso (Ram, Kelsey, Miarintsoa, Rakotomalala, Duns ton, Quick, 2007). Ghana wants to create dams for power generation while Burkina Faso plans to use water for irrigation hence causing conflicts of interest. This conflict received international community recognition which formed a major inter-governmental program to enhance regional cooperation. Green cross water for peace project was put in place to ensure full and also active involvement of representatives of civil societies across the region in generation of basin’s agreement, management policies and principles. Developing countries can learn form developed countries on how to have adequate water supply and sanitation facilities, management of floods, pollution, management of rivers and large dams. Ram et al. (2007) argues that good governance can help address the lack of safe drinking water. He further argues that good governance is essential in procuring loans and aid for water projects form international organizations like world bank, International Monetary Fund, Africa Development bank and from developed countries like Britain, Germany, china, France, united Sates of America and Russia (Rosenberg, 2010). An example of a country that applied good governance to address water problem is South Africa. After Apartheid, the government of South Africa inherited huge problems of access to safe drinking water. It had a population of over 15 million people lacked access to clean water. The government managed to commit itself to high standards and investment subsidies to achieve its goal. From that time South Africa has made good progress to a point where it reached the universal access to improved water source in its urban centers. Similarly, the percentage of people in rural areas with access to clean water increased from sixty six percent to seventy nine percent from 1991 to 2010 (Loftus, 2009). Good governance will help government in developing countries partner with institutions that will help turn all underperforming utilities into good service providers. They would also benefit from the expertise in local, national and international sectors. Research has shown that it is difficult to change processes in water sectors. There has been friction between stakeholder and partners in determining priorities. This led to ambiguities in the role and responsibilities allocation resulting to the high cost of transaction. Just like in developed countries, good governance in developing countries will enable providers and policymakers are accountable to water users. This assists in improving services and enhancing consumer understanding the need for changes and the possible contribution of public private partnership (Ram et al., 2007). Great relationship with international financial institutions will enable developed countries have an adequate supply of safe water. World Bank is known to finance building of infrastructure such as funds to dig boreholes. It usually subsidizes the cost of infrastructure through inter-governmental transfers, donor projects and social development funds (Okun, 1991). Developing countries should consider the use of use Decentralized Mebran Filtration system. This technology provides safe drinking water that is clean. This system employs effective ways of removing surrogate bacteria and parasites from drinking water hat is responsible for contamination of water. This method is affordable to low income countries. Decentralized Mebran Filtration system is appropriate where central municipal water treatment is not possible. It aims to apply integrated bench scale and field scale approach in evaluating sustainability of Decentralized Mebran Filtration system in providing safe drinking water (Huang et al., 2011). Another possible solution is applying desalinization technology. This technology is said to filter salty water through membranes and removing salt through a process of electro dialysis and the reverse osmosis. The technology has worked in over one hundred and thirty countries in Middle East and in North Africa. With this technology, countries that are currently using it produce over six billion gallons of safe drinking water a day. Recycling and filtration should also be encouraged because the two methods are easy and cheap. Conserving water can also be achieved on a smaller scale beginning with improvement in homes (EMD, 2009). Developed countries should explore and exploit underground water. A country like Kenya and Namibia has discovered a 10,000 year old supply of water in underground aquifers. This underground water can satisfy the needs of Namibia for over four hundred years. Researchers argue that throughout Africa, there is twenty times more underground water than volume of surface water. The population of Africa is expected to increase to over two billion in 2050. This implies that countries need to explore other sources of water since traditional sources of fresh water are affected by changes in climate, lack of rainfall and rises in temperature that evaporate lakes and rivers. Other methods that developing countries should encourage their citizens to use include boiling water. It is an efficient method of water sterilization though boiling is costly in terms of fuel use. Another method is solar disinfection by use of ultraviolet radiation. This method is cheap and less damaging. It involves putting water in transparent plastic bottles and exposing it to sunlight for about forty eight hours. This technology cost people nothing by only plastic bottles full of water on corrugated metal roof. Low income countries should also start water projects like water dams and rain catchment systems. These methods are simple and inexpensive. A well close to a village or in a village ensures people do not walk long distances in search of water. It saves time hence making sure there is enough time allocated for other things like learning (Barone, 2008). Campbell et al. (2013) argues that integrated research can help countries achieve adequate supply of safe water for drinking. He attributes the lack of water to fear and inadequate reorganization by communities. He points out that global research can help solve the problem of water scarcity and proper sanitation. This implies that United Nations should put more effort in bringing solutions to water problems. African countries can achieve adequate supply of clean water if they invest in integrated research and funding. They should also put in place policies and infrastructures that attract foreign investments from developed countries such as United States of America, France, China and Russia. Lack of safe water for drinking is a global problem. It affects both developed countries as well as developing countries. United Nations should look for ways to deal with water scarcity and amicable ways of resolving political instabilities resulting from water stress. Developing countries should learn from developed countries on the most appropriate ways of providing clean water. They should maintain good governance and a good environment that can attract foreign investors as well as donors. Through collective effort from all stakeholders, the problem of water can be solved. References Barone, J. (2008). Better Water. Discovery, 29(5), 31-32. Campbell, R. L., Caldwell, D., Hopkins, B., Heaney, C. D., Wing, S., Wilson, S. M., et al. (2013). Integrating Research and Community Organizing to Address Water and Sanitation Concerns in a Community Bordering a Landfill. Journal of Environmental Health, 75(10), 48-50. Dreibelbis, R., Winch, P. J., Leontsini, E., Hulland, K. R., Ram, P. K., Unicomb, L., et al. (2013). The Integrated Behavioural Model for Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene: a systematic review of behavioural models and a framework for designing and evaluating behaviour change interventions in infrastructure-restricted settings. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 1015. EMD Millipore (2013, September 23). EMD Millipore Donates $30,000 to Charity: Water in Recognition of World Water Week. Pharma Business Week, p. 22. Huang, H., Jacangelo, J. G., Schwab, K. J. (2011). Decentralized Membrane Filtration System for Sustainable and Safe Drinking Water Supply in Low-Income Countries: Baseline Study. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 137(11), 981-989. Loftus, A. (2009). Rethinking Political Ecologies of Water. Third World Quarterly, 30(5), 953-968. Okun, D. A. (1991). A Water and Sanitation Strategy for the Developing World. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 33(8), 16-43. Ram, P. K., Kelsey, E., Miarintsoa, R. R., Rakotomalala, O., Dunston, C., Quick, R. E. (2007). Bringing Safe Water to Remote Populations: An Evaluation of a Portable Point-of-Use Intervention in Rural Madagascar. American Journal of Public Health, 97(3), 398-400. Rosenberg, T. (2010). The burden of thirst. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Magazine. Source document

Club Drugs and Teens Essay -- essays research papers fc

Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In today’s society, teens are a common target of anti-drug campaigns and government advertisements. The goal of these campaigns is to make teens and young adults aware of the dangers associated with drug use. While these campaigns are generally effective, teens are still greatly tempted by the dangerous, exciting, and fast-paced world of club drugs. Despite the information they are constantly receiving from their teachers, parents, and government media, some teenagers will still adamantly pursue drugs in hopes of finding â€Å"a good time.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some of the club drugs that teens are likely to try are extremely dangerous and can ruin a person’s mental or physical health with just a few uses. Because teenagers’ nervous systems are still developing, it is very easy for them to become addicted to drugs after even one use. The lifestyle that can be brought about by the use of club drugs can be a vicious cycle of self-destruction, and can have a rapid detrimental effect on a teen’s chances to excel in life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  However, many times facts are skewed by media and government agencies in order to keep teens off drugs. While this sort of propaganda has good intentions, many people find it morally unjust to deliberately misinform people, even for their own benefit. Some risks are greatly exaggerated, and some of the â€Å"facts† which are commonly accepted are barefaced lies. In this report, I hope to create a source of unbiased, legitimate facts about club drugs and the ways they are used by teens, and the effects that they can have on a teenager’s life. I believe it is better to know and understand the risks of drug use, and make an educated decision about using them, than to be told what to think and what to do by another person. Ketamine Hydrochloride (â€Å"K†, â€Å"Special K†, â€Å"Ket†, â€Å"Vitamin K†, â€Å"Cat Tranquilizer†)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ketamine is one of the lesser-known club drugs around today, and gets far less media coverage than other more common drugs. It has been used as a veterinary and medical anesthetic since 1965, and was known for producing a fairly safe, if unusual, anesthesia in patients. It was only in 1999 that Ketamine became a controlled substance in the United States, after governmental anti-drug agencies took note of people using it as a recreational drug. &... ...ments can be made for or against this statement, but the fact remains true that many people are concerned about drug use in teens. Combating and reducing sales and use of club drugs is not an easy task, nor one that will be accomplished quickly, if at all. This isn’t going to stop people from trying. As long as there are teens who abuse drugs, there will be people fighting to stop them, for better or for worse. Bibliography 1. â€Å"Teens’ use of meth growing.† The Daily Oakland Press. Posted by an anonymous internet user. April 11, 2005. http://www.theoaklandpress.com/stories/041105/edu_20050411011.shtml 2. â€Å"Dark Crystal: Crystal Meth Across Canada.† CBC News. Author’s name not available. March 23, 2005. http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/darkcrystal/canada.html 3. â€Å"Ecstasy.† Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica premium Service. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9343568&query=ecstasy&ct= 4. Berube, Margery S., et al. â€Å"LSD†, â€Å"Ecstasy†, â€Å"Methamphetamine†, â€Å"Ketamine†. The American Heritage College Dictionary. 2000. 5. Multiple Anonymous Posters. â€Å"GHB†, â€Å"MDMA†, â€Å"Meth†, â€Å"Ketamine†, â€Å"LSD†. Erowid.org.* http://www.erowid.org/psychoactives/psychoactives.shtml

Mind games a reaction

Motion Perception into Our World that is Always in Action by: Allayed C. Marital Discussing about your brain and how it reacts to motion in order to make decisions is the main idea tackled in the â€Å"Brain Games: Motion Commotion† episode. Brain Games is a television series that explores the components of the human brain. Through the use of social experiments and interactive showmanship, this show encourages the viewers to participate in the said brain games, in which they'll be able to unravel the main points presented by each episode.In the mentioned episode, it stated that you are in a world that is constantly moving, the human brain had to develop a pretty sophisticated sense of motion in order to survive and that is apparent motion wherein we see a series of still images that are strung together very quickly and our brain perceives this as motion. Various experiments are done for the viewers to have an easy understanding of the factors connected to the topic, movement perception of the brain. The initial experiment is to observe an Auto Kinetic image wherein our rain is tricked into seeing motion – even though there isn't any.Our visual cortex is the one who is responsible for this, we tend to think that It is the picture that's doing the trick but actually we are the one who's doing It because our visual cortex Is designed to detect and see motion whether we like It or not. In the proceeding experiments I learned that we humans having evolved as visual animals are all hard- wired to notice and be captivated by motion this Is what the scientists call the brain's Orienting Response in which we feel compelled to look at anything that moves within our field of vision.Our peripheral vision Is much more sensitive to motion than the rest of our eye this Is exhibited through the coin shoulder trick. I suppose that the latter part of the episode became more dragging as It exposed the viewers Into more astounding experiments In which It appeared th at sound can really change the motion we perceive– because motion Is ambiguous. Moreover, It Is not always what we see or what we hear but sometimes It Is also what we feel or what we predict to feel. So I find out that motion can really be deceptive at many times.I believe that our brain and our eyes are always playing a trick on us thus making our body feel that It Is In motion even though we are Just sitting still and this Is the so-called vector wherein It Is not only our eyes that perceive motion but also our body?†vector† perception of self motion Induced by visual stimuli. The episode was ended by the answer on the question stated on the Introduction of the show on about how can we travel thousands of kilometers while we are Just sitting and It Is very enthralling to covers that we are traveling 1,600 kilometers per minute because we are accustomed to the Earth's constant motion.The episode didn't finish with Just nothing, It answered many deceptive questio ns. And left the viewers with bunch of new learning and wondrous discoveries about our constantly moving world and how we evolved and coped with It. It Is amazing how our brain works and how It develops together with the Innovating world. Motion will always be a part of our lives which means our brain process In perceiving motion will always continue to develop and Interpret things around us. He one who is responsible for this, we tend to think that it is the picture that's doing the trick but actually we are the one who's doing it because our visual cortex is designed to detect and see motion whether we like it or not. In the proceeding wired to notice and be captivated by motion this is what the scientists call the brain's our field of vision. Our peripheral vision is much more sensitive to motion than the rest of our eye this is exhibited through the coin shoulder trick.I suppose that the tater part of the episode became more dragging as it exposed the viewers into more astoundin g experiments in which it appeared that sound can really change the motion we perceive– because motion is ambiguous. Moreover, it is not always what we see or what we hear but sometimes it is also what we feel or what we predict to brain and our eyes are always playing a trick on us thus making our body feel that it is in motion even though we are Just sitting still and this is the so-called eviction wherein it is not only our eyes that perceive motion but also our reception of self motion induced by visual stimuli.The episode was ended by the answer on the question stated on the introduction of the show on about how can we travel thousands of kilometers while we are Just sitting and it is very enthralling to nothing, it answered many deceptive questions. And left the viewers with bunch of we evolved and coped with it. It is amazing how our brain works and how it develops together with the innovating world. Motion will always be a part of our lives which means our brain proce ss in perceiving motion will always continue to develop and interpret things around us.